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Air pollution in the EU: facts and figures

Although our air is much less polluted now than it was some decades ago, in 2023 around 280 000 people in Europe died prematurely due to air pollution.

Agriculture is the biggest source of air pollution in Europe.

The EU has a zero pollution vision for 2050 and adopted new rules in 2024 to help achieve this goal.

Main pollutants

The main pollutants include:

  • fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and particulate matter (PM10)
  • ammonia
  • methane
  • ozone
  • nitrogen oxides
  • sulphur dioxide
  • non-methane volatile organic compounds

Each of them is harmful on its own. Some also react with each other through chemical processes and become particulate matter or ozone.

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) causes the greatest harm to Europeans

Fine particulate matter is so small that it can enter the lungs and even the bloodstream, causing serious health problems. It consists of solid particles and liquid droplets of various sizes.

Dust and pollen may still be seen with the naked eye, but combustion particles are smaller than 2.5 micrometres (μm). That is roughly the size of a bacterium.

One micrometre is one millionth of a metre. A human hair is around 100 μm in diameter, roughly 30 times wider than the largest PM2.5 particle.

Diagram comparing the size of a human hair (around 100 μm) with the size of PM10 particles (less than 10 μm) and PM2.5 particles (less than 2.5 μm).

Air pollutant emissions have decreased since 1990

Since the 1980s, the EU has had strict measures in place to reduce air pollution, and emissions of the main air pollutants have decreased significantly. Between 1990 and 2023, emissions of PM10, PM2.5, ammonia, sulphur oxides, non-methane volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides fell from over 65 million tonnes to around 19 million tonnes.

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Column chart showing the evolution of six air pollutants between 1990 and 2023: PM10, PM2.5, ammonia, sulphur oxides, non-methane volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides. Emissions of all these pollutants decreased significantly, from a total of over 65 million tonnes in 1990 to around 19 million tonnes in 2023. Sulphur oxide emissions decreased the most, by almost 95%, while ammonia emissions decreased the least, by only 36%.

However, according to the latest data from the European Environment Agency, in 2023 over 94% of the EU's urban population was still exposed to concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) above the latest World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. Exposure to other pollutants also remained above recommended levels.

Where do air pollutants come from?

Agriculture and energy consumption are the biggest sources of air pollutants in the EU.

Over 60% of PM2.5 emissions come from energy consumption

The chart shows the percentage contribution of different sources to emissions of the following air pollutants in 2023: fine particulate matter (PM2.5), particulate matter (PM10), ammonia, sulphur dioxides, non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) and nitrogen oxides. Hover over the chart to view more data.

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Bar chart showing the percentage contribution of different sources to emissions of the following air pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, sulphur dioxide, non-methane volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides and ammonia. The sectors contributing most to air pollutant emissions are as follows:

  • PM2.5: residential, commercial and institutional energy consumption at 63%
  • PM10: residential, commercial and institutional energy consumption at 43%
  • sulphur dioxide: energy supply at 41% and manufacturing and extractive industry at 36%
  • non-methane volatile organic compounds: manufacturing and extractive industry at 45%
  • nitrogen oxides: transport at 50%
  • ammonia: agriculture at 94%

PM2.5 is either emitted directly, mainly through the burning of fossil fuels or biomass, or formed in the air when other pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide or ammonia, react with each other.

Ozone is not emitted directly, but forms when other pollutants, mostly nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds, react with sunlight and heat.

Significantly reducing PM2.5 levels in the air therefore requires action targeting several air pollutants and multiple sectors, including domestic heating, agriculture, transport, power generation and industry.

Health impacts

Every human inhales around 14 kg of air each day. But when breathing in, we also inhale pollutants, which enter our lungs and even our bloodstream.

Exposure to air pollution can lead to respiratory diseases including asthma, and to lung cancer and stroke.

Graphic showing the organs of the human body and the diseases and conditions that can occur due to air pollution: • brain: headaches, anxiety and impacts on the central nervous system • head: irritation of the eyes, nose and throat, and breathing problems • lungs: infections, asthma, reduced lung function, chronic bronchitis, lung cancer • heart: cardiovascular diseases • other organs: impacts on the liver, spleen and blood, as well as on the reproductive system

 

Hundreds of thousands of people in Europe die prematurely every year as a result of exposure to pollutant concentrations above the levels recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO).

182 000 deaths

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5)

34 000 deaths

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

63 000 deaths

Ozone (O3)

Environmental and economic impacts

Air pollution also harms ecosystems and vegetation, with major economic costs.

Ground-level ozone (O3) damages agricultural crops and forests by slowing growth and lowering yields. It also affects biodiversity and ecosystem services.

In recent years, many EU countries have lost more than 5% of their wheat yield due to ozone, according to the European Environment Agency.

Nitrogen oxides (NOX) and ammonia (NH3) in the air fall back down and settle on land and water. High levels of these substances can cause eutrophication – a rapid growth of algae and aquatic plants in rivers, lakes and seas. When these plants die and decompose, they use up oxygen in the water, harming fish and other organisms.

These pollutants also contribute to the acidification of freshwater and forest soils.

In 2023, almost 74% of the EU's ecosystems were exposed to levels of nitrogen that can lead to eutrophication, according to the European Environment Agency.

How clean is the air in your city?

Air pollution in Europe has decreased significantly in recent decades, but the picture varies considerably across cities.

In 2024 and 2025, 337 European cities exceeded the new EU limit of 10 micrograms of PM2.5 per cubic metre of air. One city – Slavonski Brod in Croatia – exceeded the previous EU limit of 25 micrograms of PM2.5 per cubic metre of air.

15 European cities recorded PM2.5 concentrations below 5 micrograms per cubic metre of air:

  • Narva in Estonia
  • Kuopio, Tampere, Jyväskylä, Oulu, Lahti and Espoo/Esbo in Finland
  • Reykjavik in Iceland
  • Tromsø in Norway
  • Faro in Portugal
  • Umeå, Uppsala, Västerås, Södertälje and Örebro in Sweden

Air pollution in European cities

The map ranks European cities in five groups from very low to very high pollution, based on the mortality risk from long-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ground-level ozone (O3).

Hover over your city to see the air pollution level and the pollution values for PM2.5, NO2 and O3.

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Map showing European cities, their levels of pollution with fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide and ground-level ozone in micrograms per cubic metre and their air pollution levels in five groups, ranking from very low to very high. Cities in northern and western Europe tend to have better air quality, while those in eastern and southern Europe tend to have poorer air quality.

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Last review: 27 July 2026